Molly Brown Essays - Mike Molly, American Women In World War I

Both home country and host country in FDI

Both home nation and host nation in FDI The uncommon development of multinationals is because of the idea of globalization which has no limits or cutoff points. Normally inside countrys economy there are streams of products, capital and innovation. This prompts high rivalry in the business and normally organizations will in general extend their business so as to make due in the worldwide field. The nations utilize Foreign Direct Investment as a key to internationalize their business. So as to comprehend the full importance of FDI, let us see the definition. FDI is characterized as the securing abroad of physical resources, for example, plant and hardware, with operational control eventually dwelling with the parent organization in the nation of origin (Buckley, p.35, 1996).In the previous 25 years, FDI is developing at an a lot quicker rate than exchange and both of these have become quicker than world yield (Kozul-Wright and Rowthorn, 1998). There are numerous components adding to the improvement of FDI. Some of them are Internet, innovative headway, adaptable principles and guidelines of the nation and lesser correspondence costs. FDI invigorates rivalry, capital, innovative and administrative abilities which positively affects both host and home countrys monetary development. The significance given to FDI by other nation is dumbfounding. One such model is US which has a different office called Bureau of Economic Analysis. The division screens FDI inflows and surges and present FDI fascination plans for victories. (Graham Spaulding, 2005).This article investigations different expenses and advantages to home nation and host nation with reasonable confirmations. Expenses and Benefits Let us examine the expenses and advantages of FDI to both home nations and host nations. Advantages of FDI to the host nation Slope (2005) proposed that there are three principle advantages to the host nation determined out of FDI. They are asset move impacts, business impacts and equalization of installment impacts. At whatever point an organization puts resources into a remote firm, the assets are capital, innovation and administrative aptitudes. As far as capital, the host nation will have a higher money related status than the nation of origin. The adjustment in innovation and administrative aptitudes will drastically affect the tasks completed by the organization. In the host nation due to FDI, it makes numerous work openings through which the residents of that specific nation would be profited. The parity of installments keeps tracks of FDI inflow and outpourings through two sorts of records, current record and capital record. The present record is a record of a countrys fare and import of products (Hill, 2005) and the capital record keep up buy or deal subtleties of advantages by the nation. By utili zing FDI, the nation can accomplish a present record excess (where fares are more prominent than imports) and decrease current record shortfall (where imports are more noteworthy than sends out). (Slope, 2005) Expenses of FDI to the host nation The negative impacts are named as expenses. There are likewise critical impacts which influences the host nation. At the point when a remote firm builds up with the prevalent mechanical abilities which can deliver quality things at less expensive rates, it antagonistically influences the residential makers. Equalization of installments are likewise influenced by internal FDI by two sources. When there is an underlying capital inflow there must be resulting capital surge and this will be recorded as charges on capital record. The subsequent source is because of import of products from different nations which will be recorded as charges in current record. The outside firm can modify the monetary soundness of a nation as they will be focussing just on the benefit. In the long run all the occupants of the nation will have a mental episode to clear loss of national sway. (Slope, 2005) Advantages of FDI to the nation of origin The advantage to the nation of origin additionally incorporates the elements like that of host nation. As far as equalization of installments, what is charge to have nation is credit to home nation. The outward FDI likewise prompts production of new position showcase with incredible aptitude and important abilities. Turn around asset move impact happens at whatever point assets like administrative abilities are moved back to the nation of origin. The benefit of the outside firm returns to the nation of origin not at all like household makers which adds to their nation. The nation of origin is presented to make new piece of the pie and it is at risk to make numerous later on. (Slope, 2005) Expenses of FDI to the nation of origin Due to FDI, the nation of origin is primarily influenced by capital and business. Assume a nation A chooses to put resources into nation B, utilizing its capital and innovation there will be an expansion of money related situation to the host nation than home nation. Indeed, even in future, if the nation A needs to make any headway, much center will be given to the organization in nation B and actualize changes. Therefore the creation in home nation diminishes and it once in a while bring about closing down the entirety of its activities and totally focus on the host nation. This gravely influences the home countrys economy and business. (Slope, 2005) Outline of expenses and advantages To finish up the conversation of the advantages and expenses of FDI, focuses are arranged in Table 1 Table 1 Benefits and expenses of FDI Advantages Expenses Host nation Money related assets of MNEs Access to new innovation Preparing of neighborhood supervisors Occupation creation Capital inflows BOP credits from sends out BOP credits from neighborhood creation of parts Rivalry of neighborhood makers BOP charges on repatriated income BOP charges on MNE imports on segments View of loss of national personality Home nation BOP credits from income Formation of employments in higher ability classifications Presentation to new markets, administrative ability and innovation Secures piece of the overall industry in rivalry with different MNEs Beginning venture a capital outpouring BOP charges from contribution of minimal effort merchandise Loss of fares for which FDI is a substitute Employment misfortunes in low aptitude zones Source: Hill (2005) The advantage of home nation is the expense of host nation and the other way around. In the wake of investigating for a long time, business analysts have arrived at a resolution that have nation has a greater number of advantages than home nation. This is a result of three principle reasons. The first is that they own benefits like innovation and brand name. Second it is extremely simpler to create in a nation where it will be advertised than delivering in the nation of origin and trading as it spare expenses on transportation. It likewise precludes the issue of authorizing and dealing with superfluous weights on creation from the legislature. (World Trade Organization, 1996) The accompanying segments are outline of FDI expenses and advantages. Renault-Nissan Alliance The Renault-Nissan union in 1999 is the main business-related and modern association among France and Japan (www.renault.com). The coalition got an incredible consideration as they made an exceptionally huge effect on the Japanese vehicle industry. Prior to the affiliation, Nissan was going to bankrupt and caused an emotional loss of  ¥700 billion. At the point when it was taken over by Renault with another supervisory group headed via Carlos Ghosn, a total rebuilding was finished. The worldwide work power was decreased by 10 percent, five manufacturing plants were shut and Nissans shareholdings were sold. These were high as indicated by Japanese norms (Paprzycki, 2006). The results were amazing as they recorded continuous benefit in the next years with high working edges and it was because of joined mastery and innovation sharing (www.renault.com). The taking of piece of the pie from its opponents Honda, Mazda and Mitsubishi was an away from of its quickened improvement (Paprzycki , 2006). From this, it is certain that move of administrative aptitudes will have a gigantic effect in the accomplishment of the business. Mexican Maquiladores Maquiladores alludes to an American organization on the Mexican side of US-Mexico fringe. They are possessed by US, Japanese and European nations. The purpose behind these organizations to go to Mexico is because of modest work and low expense (www.about.com). Numerous US organizations including GE, RCA, IBM, Coca-cola and Ford were the first to start creation in Mexico. Japanese and Korean firms additionally became significant speculators in 1982. Subsequently, it had a positive reflection on business. It rose from 100,000 of every 1982 to 500,000 of every 1992. The NAFTA execution further supported up to 1.3 million and the district detailed for 40 percent of absolute Mexican fares. The measure of merchandise sent out to US expanded from $42 billion out of 1993 to $166 billion out of 2000. Passages plant in Mexico turned into the third biggest outside claimed producing activity in Latin America. (Jones, 2005) US - Malaysia FDI relationship The economy of Malaysia was gravely influenced by a few downturns like overall oil emergency and Asian financial emergency. Its economy again bounced back in 1999. FDI turned into a key factor in countrys advancement. Anderson (1993) recommended barely any variables that pull in FDI in Malaysia were underestimated cash, ease of work and genuinely low expansion rate. Despite the fact that there are numerous outside financial specialists, U.S. organizations positions first in FDI in Malaysia. The organizations like Boeing, General Electric, R.J. Reynolds and Bechtel were significant American financial specialists. The legislature gave ideal climatic conditions to American firms to work in Malaysia. The accompanying components pulled in U.S. firms to put resources into Malaysia. The administration set up an Anti defilement Agency to forestall debasement in any structure. It has the equivalent lawful structure so the speculators had incredible comfort in taking care of their business adh ering to the guidelines and guidelines ordered by the administration. Besides there was no language issue as Malaysia is an English talking nation. The financial specialists got pulled in towards the motivating forces gave through expense treatment and liberal value proprietorship. There were likewise a few issues looked by remote

The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Insomnia

The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Insomnia Social Anxiety Disorder Related Conditions Print The Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Insomnia By Arlin Cuncic Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of Therapy in Focus: What to Expect from CBT for Social Anxiety Disorder and 7 Weeks to Reduce Anxiety. Learn about our editorial policy Arlin Cuncic Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on May 22, 2017 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on January 13, 2020 Social Anxiety Disorder Overview Symptoms & Diagnosis Causes Treatment Living With In Children milos-kreckovic/Getty Images Insomnia is a sleep disorder that sometimes co-exists with social anxiety disorder (SAD). In simple terms, insomnia refers to trouble falling asleep or getting enough sleep. While most people have trouble falling asleep from time to time, those with chronic insomnia have  trouble sleeping more than three nights a week for three months or more. Often, insomnia occurs in people who have another mental health disorder. If youre dealing with social anxiety disorder, you might lay awake at night worrying about the events of the day, perhaps wondering if you embarrassed yourself at school or at work. In turn, you might think about the next day and worry about that as well,  dreading  the thought of having to talk to  classmates or coworkers who might notice your anxiety. Its not unusual for such thoughts to continue circling through your head like a broken record and make sleeping difficult. After tossing and turning for a while, you might fall asleep only to wake up a few hours later and stare at the clock for the rest of the night until the alarm goes off. How to Reduce Stress and Racing Thoughts at Night Does the above description sound at all like you? Individuals with SAD are prone to problems with insomnia because of their tendency to worry at night. Insomnia can lead to problems with daytime functioning and poor quality of life, including causing trouble for you in your work and social relationships. Finallyâ€"just like SAD, insomnia tends to go unreported and untreated. Patients forget to tell their doctors about their sleep problems, and doctors forget to ask. Everything You Need to Know About Insomnia How Do You Know If You Have Insomnia? People with insomnia have trouble getting enough sleep and feel tired as a result. Signs of Insomnia Trouble getting enough sleep can result from any of the following:Taking too long to fall asleepWaking up frequently through the nightWaking up at night or too early in the morning and not being able to fall back asleep If any of these issues is a problem for you, and you also live with social anxiety, it is possible that your difficulty sleeping is related to your issues with anxiety. How Is Insomnia Assessed? Insomnia may be assessed using a self-rating sleep questionnaire. The most widely used and  validated questionnaire for this purpose is the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. In this questionnaire, you will be asked about your sleep quality, sleep problems, and more in the past month. Another tool to assess insomnia is a sleep log or diary. Completion of one of these tools allows your doctor to analyze your nightly sleep patterns, such as when you went to bed, fell asleep, and woke up. Typically you would complete a log for a period of two weeks. If you have severe sleep problems, referral to a sleep laboratory for assessment might be warranted. 7 Diagnostic Tests for Sleep Disorders Treatments for Insomnia Insomnia can be treated with medication, therapy, or a combination of the two. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) has been shown to be highly effective. It has also been shown to be as effective as medication for short-term treatment of chronic insomnia. However, only about 1 percent  of patients with chronic insomnia receive this type of therapy. In a case study, brief cognitive behavior therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) was evaluated. Participants were given five sessions per week and treatment involved psychoeducation, sleep restriction therapy (reducing time spent in bed), stimulus control (re-associating your bedroom with sleep), and cognitive restructuring (developing more helpful thoughts about sleep). All targeted sleep parameters showed improvement.Gains were maintained at 9 months after treatment.Sleep-related anxiety and dysfunctional beliefs/attitudes about sleep were reduced. Results suggested that brief CBT-I could be incorporated into treatment for SAD for people who have trouble with insomnia. However, medication is generally the  primary treatment for insomnia because it works quickly, usually within days to a week. There are many types of drugs  used in the treatment of insomnia. Here are some common categories: Nonbenzodiazepines Eszopiclone)Benzodiazepines (Estazolam)Tricylic antidepressant (Low-dose Sinequan)Melatonin agonist (Ramelteon) While alternative treatments for insomnia such as bright light, acupuncture, and yoga may hold some appeal, there has not been consistent evidence to support their effectiveness. 14 Natural Ways to Get a Better Nights Sleep Is There a Relationship Between the Two? In a nationally representative cross-sectional survey, it was shown that individuals with comorbid (meaning that they had both) mood and anxiety disorders, or mood or anxiety disorders alone,  had significantly higher rates of severe insomnia compared to three other groups. For those with both mood and anxiety problems, reports of severe insomnia in the past year were related to increased days of impairment, or simply, days when they did not function well. In another study using an undergraduate sample of almost 200 students (some of whom were grouped as having clinical anxiety symptoms), it was shown that social anxiety was related to increased symptoms of insomnia. People with SAD were more dissatisfied with their sleep, experienced more impairment because of their sleep problems, and were distressed about their sleep problems. However, it was also shown that depression may have played a role in mediating the relationship between social anxiety and insomnia. In other words, there seems to be a link between SAD and insomnia, but it is possible that the co-occurrence of  depression could be an important factor contributing to insomnia. In a study of 30 individuals with generalized SAD and 30 matched healthy controls,  people with generalized SAD showed poorer sleep quality, longer sleep latency (time to fall asleep), more frequent sleep disturbance, and more severe dysfunction during the day. Those with a lifetime history of major depression did not show different findings compared to those without this diagnosis. These results suggest that in particular, the generalized form of SAD may be related to sleep disturbances, regardless of whether depression is also an issue. Social Anxiety Disorder and Depression Other Causes of Insomnia There are many potential causes of insomnia that are not related to having an anxiety disorder. A doctor will need to rule these out before beginning any sort of treatment. Below is a list of other potential causes or contributors to insomnia: Sleep apnea (a problem in which you stop breathing for brief repeated periods)Restless legs syndromeCardiovascular disorders (e.g., congestive heart failure)Pulmonary disorders (e.g., emphysema)Thyroid disordersGI disorders (e.g., acid reflux)Neurological disorders (e.g., pain syndromes)Medications for medical and psychiatric disorders (e.g., SSRIs for anxiety/depression, amphetamines for ADHD, pain medication)Psychostimulants (e.g., ephedrine in cold medication)BronchodilatorsCaffeine or alcohol use These May Be the Real Reasons You Cant Get to Sleep Tips to Cope In addition to receiving treatment for your social anxiety, there are steps you can take on your own to help improve your insomnia. Monitoring your sleep hygiene is something that everyone can do. Good sleep hygiene might involve doing the following: Limit  daytime naps.Limit  late night snacks or meals.Avoid rigorous exercise immediately before bed.Avoid  watching TV in bed.Reduce light and noise in the bedroom.Go to bed at a regular time every night.Wake  up at a set time every morning.Follow  a bedtime routine that allows you to relax.Dont lie in bed awake for more than 5 to 10 minutes. Get up and worry (if you mustâ€"ideally get a handle on your worrying, too.) somewhere else until you feel sleepy. This limits your association of lying awake worrying with your bedroom.Limit caffeine and alcohol.Set the temperature to your bedroom at a comfortable level, preferably on the cool side.Buy a comfortable mattress if you dont already have one.Hide the clock if you tend to watch it. Fixing Your Bad Sleep Hygiene A Word From Verywell If you suffer from both insomnia and social anxiety disorder, successful treatment of your insomnia could make your anxiety disorder more responsive to treatment as well. Be sure to mention your trouble sleeping to your doctor, so that this separate problem can be treated directly.

Feudalism began in England during the medieval period....

Feudalism began in England during the medieval period. Times were hard, people needed help from a rich land owner to survive. The kingdom would offer safety to those who worked for the kingdom, along with other beneficial perks needed for the survival of the peasants. If you fight for the kingdom then you will receive great amounts of land, but people who farmed didn’t receive as much in return. It kind of shocks me because they had a hard enough time getting food let alone having to provide an army to protect its people against a possible invasion from another kingdom. If they could have just focused on necessary things to survive they would have been a lot richer in the form of resources. Having land was important to people back then†¦show more content†¦Life was not exactly the best for the common person during the medieval period, things seemed dark and depressing. There were a lot of health problems for people at this time; disease was spreading around like a wil dfire. They didn’t have the right medical knowledge to treat or help the people so simple sicknesses were actually life threatening. It was hard for them to keep ahead of the game (having resources readily available for the future). Too many people were getting sick, there were not enough able bodies to perform all of the tasks that needed to be completed. Once nobles were able to pay for soldiers instead of fighting themselves they started to hire mercenaries. These were people that were professionally trained to fight and they were feared by much of Europe because they were so deadly. It worked well for mercenaries and the nobles. The nobles didn’t want to risk their lives because they had enough money to pay for someone else to protect the kingdom, not to mention most of them were far too weak to fight. This all occurred right after England was striped with a devastating loss of one third of their entire population, due to Black Death. Life wasn’t too pleasa nt for the peasants. They didn’t want to do anything for the kingdom, things weren’t getting done. Everything started to fall apart and then people lost all hope. The people then rebelled against the kingdom, they wanted aShow MoreRelatedTo What Extent Did Feudalism Affect the Societies in the Middle Ages?1518 Words   |  7 PagesTo what extent did feudalism affect the societies in the Middle Ages? Plan of Investigation The investigation assesses the significance of the feudal system in the middle ages. In order to evaluate the feudal system’s significance, the investigation evaluates each role of the social classes in a Middle Ages society. This includes the kings, nobles and lords, knights, and peasants and serfs. Articles and secondary sources are mostly used to evaluate the feudal system’s significance. Two of theRead MoreAn Analysis of the Reasons for Hamlets Tragedy3211 Words   |  13 Pagesremarkable work by Shakespeare in his dramas. 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The Strategy Development Of Primark - 857 Words

Assessment TWO Strategy Development Section 1 1. Market Entry For many firms, seeking for new countries’ markets is the mainly attempt to spread their products or services into the foreign markets, and the firms will retain and construct their participation in present markets to increase their worldwide competitive force (Doole and Lowe, 2012, 218; Hollensen, 2007, 5).About market , there is no perfect market entry plan and different market entry methods might be adopted by different firms entering the same market and/or by the same firm in different markets (Bukley, 1985). Figure1 presents the diverse types of the market entry ways, and the different levels of the risk and control in the market entry (Doole and Lowe, 2012, 219-221). Figure1. Risk and Control in market entry Souse: Doole and Lowe (2012, 220) Primark is a large Irish clothing retailer and it is a subsidiary of the international firm Associated British Foods. As an international company, and has this huge backstage supporter, its international experience can help Primark to avoid some unnecessary problems. Consequently, Primark can seek the benefits from Sà £o Paulo City in Brazil. 2. Strategic Considerations Selecting an appropriately market entry mode can prove an enterprise’s competitiveness advantage. in order to compete with established Brazil competitors, and the entry modes also need to aid 3. Entry Mode for Sà £o Paulo/Brazil This essay advises that to start a business as wholly-ownedShow MoreRelatedThe Marketing Plan Of Primark Essay1191 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction: Primark, as a part of Associated British Foods, is a fashionable brand in Europe. It owns at least 300 stores over United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Spain, Netherlands and Portugal. Primark in which located in Ireland, is basically operating a sale of clothing and household supplies with approximately 60000 employees. 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Primark follows a focused approached on delivering effective communication to their staff, partners, board Members, suppliers and customers. There are a number of ways that Primark can communicate to its customers

The Nature of Viruses Free Essays

Viruses are sub-cellular agents of infection that must utilize the cellular machinery of bacteria, plants or animals in order to reproduce. Composed of a single strand of genetic material (DNA or RNA) encased in a protein capsid, a virus is too small to be seen by standard light microscopy; indeed, most are less than one hundredth the size of a bacterium. Specific proteins on the viral capsid attach to receptors on the host cell; this attachment process is essential to viral infectivity and explains why viruses may only infect the cells of certain species or may only infect certain cells or tissues within a given host species. We will write a custom essay sample on The Nature of Viruses or any similar topic only for you Order Now While the infecting virus triggers an immune response in the host, some are capable of suppressing that response by infecting and killing cells that control immunity (e. g. HIV attacks lymphocytes). In addition, while most infected cells are destroyed by viral replication, some viruses enter a latent phase within cells, reactivating in the future to produce chronic or relapsing infections. Many viruses use specific carriers (known as vectors) such as mosquitoes, ticks, bats and rodents that transmit the virus to a susceptible host while others are spread between individuals via blood contact or through respiratory, intestinal or sexual secretions. Of special concern is the fact that mutations within the viral genome may allow viruses to skip from one host (e. g. birds, swine, monkeys) to another (e. g. humans), unleashing pandemics. Many common human infections are produced by viruses; these include the common cold, influenza, mononucleosis, herpes infections (including shingles), viral hepatitis (A, B, C and others), HIV, viral gastroenteritis, conjunctivitis, viral pneumonia, encephalitis, viral meningitis and viral infections of the heart, including pericarditis and myocarditis. While viruses do not respond to antibiotics, specific antiviral agents may control (though not cure) chronic disease (such as HIV, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C) or may modify the severity of acute infection (as in influenza and herpes infections). However, in most viral infections, treatment is, for now, purely symptomatic and supportive. On the other hand, vaccines are capable of preventing some viral infections (e. g. herpes simplex, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, Hepatitis B) or reducing the severity of an acute infection (e. g. influenza). Beyond the acute or chronic illness that they produce, some viral infections (such and Hepatitis C and certain strains of herpes simplex) are known to be precursors of malignancy. Finally, many researchers suspect that viruses play a role in the pathogenesis of chronic illnesses such as multiple sclerosis and autoimmune disorders. ttp://naturesblog. blogspot. com/2013/01/the-nature-of-viruses. html The Nature of Viruses Viruses exist in two different states, the extracellular infectious particle or virion and the intracellular state consisting of viral nucleic acid. The capsid may be a polyhedron or a helix, or a combination of both (in some phages). Viruses are infective micro ¬o rganisms that show several differences from typical microbial cells. 1. Size. The size range of viruses is from about 20 to 300 nm. On the whole, viruses are much smaller than bacteria. Most animal viruses and all plant viruses and phages are invisible under the light microscope. 2. Simple structure. Viruses have very simple structures. The simplest viruses are nucleoprotein particles consisting of genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein capsid. In this respect they differ from typical cells which arc made up) of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nuc1eicacids. The more complex viruses contain lipids and carbohydrates in addition to proteins and nucleic acids, e. g. the enveloped viruses 3. Absence of cellular structure. Viruses do not have any cytoplasm, and thus cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria, Golgi complexes, lysosomes, ribosomes, etc. , are absent. They do not have any limiting cell membrane. They utilize the ribosomes of the host cell for protein synthesis during reproduction. 4. No independent metabolism. Viruses cannot multiply outside a living cell. No virus has been cultivated in a cell-free medium. Viruses do not have an independent metabolism. They are metabo ¬lically inactive outside the host cell because they do not posses enzyme systems and protein synthesis machinery. Viral nucleic acid replicates by utilizing the protein synthesis machinery of the host. It codes for the synthesis of a limited number of viral proteins, including the subunits or capsomeres of the capsid, the tail protein and some enzymes concerned Viruses have only one nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. Typical cells have both DNA and RNA. Genomes of certain with the synthesis or the release of virions. 5. Nucleic acids. RNA viruses can be transcribed into complementary DNA strands in the infected host cells, e. g. Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV). Such RNA viruses are therefore also called RNA-DNA viruses. 6. Crystallization. Many of the smaller viruses can be crystallized, and thus behave like chemicals. 7. No growth and division. Viruses do not have the power of growth and division. A fully formed virus does not increase in, size by addition of new molecules. The virus itself cannot divide. Only its genetic material (RNA or DNA) is capable of reproduction and that too only in a host cell. It will thus be seen that viruses do not show all the characteris ¬tics of typical living organisms. They, however, possess two funda ¬mental characteristics of living systems. Firstly, they contain nucleic acid as their genetic material. The nucleic acid contains instructions for the structure and function of the virus. Secondly, they can reproduce themselves, even if only by using the host cells synthesis machinery. Viral genomes The nucleic acid comprising the genome may be single-stranded or double-stranded, in a linear, circular or segmented configuration. Single-stranded virus genomes may be: †¢ positive (+)sense, i. e. of the same polarity (nucleotide sequence) as mRNA †¢ negative (-)sense Ambisense – a mixture of the two. N/B. Virus genomes range in size from approximately 3,200 nucleotides (nt) to approximately 1. 2 million base pairs Unlike the genomes of all cells, which are composed of DNA, virus genomes may contain their genetic information encoded in either DNA or RNA. Since viruses are obligate intracellular parasites only able to replicate inside the appropriate host cells, the genome must contain information encoded in a form which can be recognized decoded by the particular type of cell parasitized. Thus, the genetic code employed by the virus must match or at least be recognized by the host organism. Similarly, the control signals which direct the expression of virus genes must be appropriate to the host. Many of the DNA viruses of eukaryotes closely resemble their host cells in terms of the biology of their genomes: Some DNA virus genomes are complexed with cellular histones to form a chromatin-like structure inside the virus particle. http://expertscolumn. com/content/nature-viruses http://www. mcb. uct. ac. za/tutorial/virorig. html Viral evolution Viral evolution is a subfield of evolutionary biology and virology that is specifically concerned with the evolution of viruses. Many viruses, in particular RNA viruses, have short generation times and relatively high mutation rates (on the order of one point mutation or more per genome per round of replication for RNA viruses). This elevated mutation rate, when combined with natural selection, allows viruses to quickly adapt to changes in their host environment. Viral evolution is an important aspect of the epidemiology of viral diseases such as influenza (influenza virus), AIDS (HIV), and hepatitis (e. . HCV). It also causes problems in the development of successful vaccines and antiviral drugs, as resistant mutations often appear within weeks or months after the beginning of the treatment. One of the main theoretical models to study viral evolution is the quasispecies model, as the viral quasispecies. | Origins Viruses are ancient. Studies at the molecular level have revealed relationships between viruses infecting organisms from each of the three domains of life, and viral proteins that pre-date the divergence of life and thus the last universal common ancestor. 1] This indicates that viruses emerged early in the evolution of life and existed before modern cells. [2] There are three classical hypotheses on the origins of viruses: Viruses may have once been small cells that parasitised larger cells (the degeneracy hypothesis[3][4] or reduction hypothesis[5]); some viruses may have evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that â€Å"escaped† from the genes of a larger organism (the vagrancy hypothesis[6] or escape hypothesis); or viruses could have evolved from complex molecules of protein and nucleic acid at the same time as cells first appeared on earth (the virus-first hypothesis). 5] None of these hypotheses was fully accepted: the regressive hypothesis did not explain why even the smallest of cellular parasites do not resemble viruses in any way. The escape hypothesis did not explain the complex capsids and other structures on virus particles. The virus-first hypothesis was quickly dismissed because it contravened the definition of viruses, in that they require host cells. [5] Virologists are, however, beginning to reconsider and re-evaluate all three hypotheses. [7][8] http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Viral_evolution Evolution Time-line of paleoviruses in the human lineage[9] Viruses do not form fossils in the traditional sense, because they are much smaller than the grains of sedimentary rocks that fossilize plants and animals. However, the genomes of many organism contain endogenous viral elements (EVEs). These DNA sequences are the remnants of ancient virus genes and genomes that ancestrally ‘invaded’ the host germline. For example, the genomes of most vertebrate species contain hundreds to thousands of sequences derived from ancient retroviruses. These sequences are a valuable source of retrospective evidence about the evolutionary history of viruses, and have given birth to the science of paleovirology. 9] The evolutionary history of viruses can to some extent be inferred from analysis of contemporary viral genomes. The mutation rates for many viruses have been measured, and application of a molecular clock allows dates of divergence to be inferred. [10] Viruses evolve through changes in their DNA (or RNA), some quite rapidly, and the best adapted mutants quickly outnumber their less fit counterparts. In this sense their evolution is Darwinian, just like that of their host organisms. [11] The way viruses reproduce in their host cells makes them particularly susceptible to the genetic changes that help to drive their evolution. 12] The RNA viruses are especially prone to mutations. [13] In host cells there are mechanisms for correcting mistakes when DNA replicates and these kick in whenever cells divide. [13] These important mechanisms prevent potentially lethal mutations from being passed on to offspring. But these mechanisms do not work for RNA and when an RNA virus replicates in its host cell, changes in their genes are occasionally introduced in error, some of which are lethal. One virus part icle can produce millions of progeny viruses in just one cycle of replication, therefore the production of a few â€Å"dud† viruses is not a problem. Most mutations are â€Å"silent† and do not result in any obvious changes to the progeny viruses, but others confer advantages that increase the fitness of the viruses in the environment. These could be changes to the virus particles that disguise them so they are not identified by the cells of the immune system or changes that make antiviral drugs less effective. Both of these changes occur frequently with HIV. [14] Phylogenetic tree showing the relationships of morbilliviruses of different species[15] Many viruses (for example, influenza A virus) can â€Å"shuffle† their genes with other viruses when two similar strains infect the same cell. This phenomenon is called genetic shift, and is often the cause of new and more virulent strains appearing. Other viruses change more slowly as mutations in their genes gradually accumulate over time, a process known as genetic drift. [16] Through these mechanisms new viruses are constantly emerging and present a continuing challenge to attempts to control the diseases they cause. [17][18] Most species of viruses are now known to have common ancestors, and although the â€Å"virus first† hypothesis has yet to gain full acceptance, there is little doubt that the thousands of species of modern viruses have evolved from less numerous ancient ones. 19] The morbilliviruses, for example, are a group of closely related, but distinct viruses that infect a broad range of animals. The group includes measles virus, which infects humans and primates; canine distemper virus, which infects many animals including dogs, cats, bears, weasels and hyaenas; rinderpest, which infects cattle and buffalo; and other viruses of seals, porpoises and dolphins. 20] Although it not possible to prove which of these rapidly evolving viruses is the earliest, for such a closely related group of viruses to be found in such diverse hosts suggests a possible ancient common ancestor. [21] The Nature of Viruses Viruses are sub-cellular agents of infection that must utilize the cellular machinery of bacteria, plants or animals in order to reproduce. Composed of a single strand of genetic material (DNA or RNA) encased in a protein capsid, a virus is too small to be seen by standard light microscopy; indeed, most are less than one hundredth the size of a bacterium. Specific proteins on the viral capsid attach to receptors on the host cell; this attachment process is essential to viral infectivity and explains why viruses may only infect the cells of certain species or may only infect certain cells or tissues within a given host species. While the infecting virus triggers an immune response in the host, some are capable of suppressing that response by infecting and killing cells that control immunity (e. g. HIV attacks lymphocytes). In addition, while most infected cells are destroyed by viral replication, some viruses enter a latent phase within cells, reactivating in the future to produce chronic or relapsing infections. Many viruses use specific carriers (known as vectors) such as mosquitoes, ticks, bats and rodents that transmit the virus to a susceptible host while others are spread between individuals via blood contact or through respiratory, intestinal or sexual secretions. Of special concern is the fact that mutations within the viral genome may allow viruses to skip from one host (e. g. birds, swine, monkeys) to another (e. g. humans), unleashing pandemics. Many common human infections are produced by viruses; these include the common cold, influenza, mononucleosis, herpes infections (including shingles), viral hepatitis (A, B, C and others), HIV, viral gastroenteritis, conjunctivitis, viral pneumonia, encephalitis, viral meningitis and viral infections of the heart, including pericarditis and myocarditis. While viruses do not respond to antibiotics, specific antiviral agents may control (though not cure) chronic disease (such as HIV, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C) or may modify the severity of acute infection (as in influenza and herpes infections). However, in most viral infections, treatment is, for now, purely symptomatic and supportive. On the other hand, vaccines are capable of preventing some viral infections (e. g. erpes simplex, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, Hepatitis B) or reducing the severity of an acute infection (e. g. influenza). Beyond the acute or chronic illness that they produce, some viral infections (such and Hepatitis C and certain strains of herpes simplex) are known to be precursors of malignancy. Finally, many researchers suspect that viruses play a role in the pathogenesis of chronic illnesses such as multiple sclerosis and autoimmune disorders. development of viruses (images) How to cite The Nature of Viruses, Papers

The Rise of Civilization in the Middle East and Africa Essay Example

The Rise of Civilization in the Middle East and Africa Essay The first full civilization emerged by 3500 B. C. in the Tigris-Euphrates valley in the Middle East. Relatively soon thereafter civilization developed along the Nile in Egypt, and later spread to other parts of the Middle East and one region in Africa. The advent of civilization provided a framework for most of the developments in world history. Additionally, the specific early civilizations that arose in the Middle East and Africa had several distinctive features, in political structure and cultural tone, for example. These features secured the evolution of these societies until the partial eclipse of he river-valley civilizations after about 1000 B. C. The early civilizations in the Middle East and North Africa served as generators of a number of separate and durable civilization traditions, which can still be found in civilizations around the Mediterranean, in parts of Europe, and even across the Atlantic. Both of these early civilizations formed around major rivers the Tigris an d Euphrates in Mesopotamia and the Nile in northeastern Africa. Explaining how civilizations emerged in the Middle East and then Africa requires a reminder of the conditions that contributed to change after 4000 B. C. and a ore precise definition of civilization. Once that is done, we can turn to the characteristics of Mesopotamian civilization, from its origins around 3500 B. C. until it experienced an important period of disunity around 1000 B. C. Next comes Egypt, the worlds second civilization in time, which again can be traced until about 1000 B. C. The two early civilizations had very different cultures and political structures reflecting their very separate origins. By 1000 B. C. both of these two early civilizations produced offshoots in eastern Africa, southern Europe, and additional centers in the Middle East. These smaller centers of civilization made important contributions of their own, for example, the monotheistic religion created among the Jewish people in Palestine. Early Civilization In Mesopotamia Even the technological innovations that shaped the context for the rise of civilization took many centuries to win full impact. Soon after 4000 B. C. however, conditions were ripe for a final set of changes that constituted the arrival of civilization. These changes were based on the use of economic surplus and the growing needs of a coordinated regional network of villages. The Sumerians The scene for the first civilization was the northeastern section of what we today call the Middle East, along the great rivers that led to the Persian Gulf. The agents were a newly-arrived people called the Sumerians. The first civilization developed in a part of the Middle East slightly south of the hilly country in which the first agricultural villages had emerged several thousand years earlier. Between the northern hills and the deserts of the Arabian peninsula, running from the eastern Mediterranean coast to the fall plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, lies a large swath of arable land called the Fertile Crescent. We will write a custom essay sample on The Rise of Civilization in the Middle East and Africa specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Rise of Civilization in the Middle East and Africa specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Rise of Civilization in the Middle East and Africa specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The rivers rise in the spring, depositing immensely fertile soil. Rainfall was scant in the region, so as population pressure increased, farming communities began to find ways to tame and use the rivers through irrigation ditches. Construction of the ditches required improved tools that were not available much before 4000 B. C. , and from that point onward developments in the region were swift. Irrigation plus the fertility of the Tigris-Euphrates region generated substantial food surpluses promoting population growth and village expansion, as well as increasing trade and specialization. The region was vulnerable in one respect: It was so flat that it was open to frequent invasion. By 3500 B. C. farmers in Mesopotamia, as the Tigris-Euphrates region is also called, were benefiting not only from rich agriculture, but also from flourishing pottery and obsidian tool production. The wheel had been introduced, and community coordination was steadily improving to support the irrigation network. The final boost toward establishing civilization was provided by the Sumerians, a people who had migrated into the area from the north around 4000 B. C. They settled in an area of about 700 square miles where they mixed with ther local races in a pattern of cultural mingling that has remained characteristic of the region. Sumerian culture early developed important religious values with centers of pilgrimage and worship. Well before 3000 B. C. many of these centers were provided with elaborately decorated temples, built with mud brick. Sumerians were impressed with the power of grim gods who ultimately controlled human destiny. Sumerian Culture And Politics Into this rich economy and culture writing the most important invention between the advent of agriculture and the age of the steam engine was introduced around 3500 B. C. The Sumerian invention of writing was probably rather sudden, based on new needs for commercial, property, and political records including a celebration of the deeds of proud local kings. Writing was preceded by the invention of clay cylinder seals, on which little pictures of objects could be recorded. The earliest Sumerian writing simply evolved from these pictures baked on clay tablets, which were turned into symbols and gradually transformed into phonetic elements. The early Sumerian alphabet set of symbols representing sounds may have had as many as 2000 symbols derived from the early pictures. Before long writers began to use more bstract symbols to represent sounds which allowed Sumerians and their successors to reduce the alphabet to about 300 symbols. Sumerian writers used a wedge-shaped stick to impress the symbols on clay tablets. The resulting writing is called cuneiform, meaning wedge shaped, and it was used for several thousand years in the Middle East for many differ ent languages. Cuneiform writing was difficult to learn, so specialized scribes monopolized most of it, but the Sumerians in fact believed that every object in nature should have a separate name to assure its place in the universe; knowing the name gave a person some power over the object. Writing, in other words, quickly took on essentially religious purposes, allowing people to impose an abstract order over nature and the social world. Sumerian civilization lasted intact until about 2000 B. C. Its political organization was based on tightly organized city-states, where the agricultural hinterland was ruled by an urban-based king who claimed great authority. In some cases local councils advised the king. One of the functions of Sumerian states was to define boundaries, unlike the less formal territories of precivilized villages in the region. The government helped regulate religion and enforce its duties. It also provided a system of courts for justice. Kings were originally war leaders whose leadership of a trained army in defense and war remained vital in Sumerian politics where fighting loomed large. Kings, the noble class, and the priesthood controlled considerable land. Slaves, conquered in wars with nearby tribes, were used to work this land. Sumerian political and social organization set up traditions that would long endure in this region. City-state government established a tradition of regional rule, that would often be overlaid by larger empires but would frequently return as the principal organizational form. The reliance on slaves was maintained in the economy of many successor civilizations. Use of slaves along with the lack of natural barriers to invasion help explain recurrent warfare, for war was often needed to supply labor. At the same time, slavery in the Middle Eastern tradition was a variable condition, and many slaves were able to earn their own keep and even buy their freedom. The Sumerians, aided by regional political stability and the use of writing, added to their regions economic prosperity. Agriculture gained as farmers learned how to cultivate date trees, onions, and garlic. Oxen were sed to pull plows, donkeys to carry goods. Wheeled carts helped transport goods as well. The Sumerians introduced the use of fertilizer and adopted silver as a means of exchange for buying and selling. Major cities expanded one city reached a population of over 70,000 with substantial housing units in rows of flat-roofed, mud-brick shops and apartments. More commonly, cities contained as many as 10,000 people. The Sumerians improved the potters wheel, which expanded the production of pottery. Because of the skill level and commercial importance involved, men began to take the trade away from women. The Sumerians also invented glass. Trade expanded to the lower Persian Gulf and to the western portion of the Middle East along the Mediterranean. By 2000 B. C. the Sumerians had trading contacts with India. The Sumerians also steadily elaborated their culture, again using writing to advance earlier forms. By about 2000 B. C. they managed to write down the worlds oldest story, the Gilgamesh epic, which went back at least to the 7th millennium B. C. in oral form. Gilgamesh, a real person who had ruled a city-state, became the first hero in world literature. The epic describes a great flood that obliterated humankind except for a favored family who urvived by building an ark and producing descendants who formed a new race of people. The overall tone of the epic and of Sumerian culture (perhaps reflecting the frequently disastrous floods of the region) was somber. Gilgamesh does great deeds but constantly bumps up against the iron laws of the gods, ensuring human failure as the gods triumph in the end. The heroes, the wi se men, like the new moon have their waxing and waning. Men will say, Who has ever ruled with might and with power like Gilgamesh? As in the dark month, the month of shadows; so with-out him there is no light. O Gilgamesh, this was the meaning of your dream. You were given the kingship, such was your destiny; everlasting life was not your destiny . . . Gilgamesh, why do you search? The life you seek you will never find. When the gods created the world, they made death a part of human fate. Along with early literature, Sumerian art developed steadily. Statues and painted frescoes adorned the temples of the gods, and statues of the gods decorated individual homes. Sumerian science aided a complex agricultural society, as people sought to learn more about the movement of the sun and stars thus founding the science of astronomy and to improve their athematical knowledge. The Sumerians employed a system of numbers based on units of 12, 60, and 360, which we still use in calculations involving circles and hours. They also introduced specific systems, such as charts of major constellations, that have been used for 5000 years in the Middle East and through later imitation in India and Europe. In other words, Sumerians and their successors in M esopotamia created patterns of observation and abstract thought about nature on which a number of later societies, including our own, still rely. Religion played a vital role in Sumerian culture and politics. Gods were associated with various forces of nature. At the same time gods were seen as having a human form and many of humanitys more disagreeable characteristics. Thus the gods often quarreled and used their power in selfish and childish ways which made for interesting stories but also created a fear that the gods might make life difficult and hard to control. The gloomy cast of Sumerian religious ideas also included an afterlife of suffering an original version of the concept of hell. Because gods were believed to regulate natural forces such as flooding in a region where nature was often harsh and npredictable, they were more feared than loved. Priests played a central role because of their responsibility for placating the gods through proper prayers, sacrifices, and magic. Priests became full-time specialists, running the temples and also performing the astronomical calculations necessary to run the irrigation systems. Each city had a patron god, and erected impressive shrines to please and honor this god and other deities. Massive towers, called ziggurats, formed the monumental architecture for this civilization. Prayers and offerings to prevent floods as well as to protect good health were a vital art of Sumerian life. Sumerian ideas about the divine force behind and within natural objects in rivers, trees, and mountains were common among agricultural peoples. A religion of this sort is known as animism. More specifically, Sumerian religious notions, notably their ideas about the creation of the earth by the gods from a chaos of water and about divine punishment of humans through floods, continue to have force in Jewish, Christian, and Muslim cultures, all of which were born much later in the Middle East. Sumerian activities in trade and war spread beyond the regional limits of the civilization in the Middle East. The adoption of portions of the Gilgamesh tale in later literature such as the Jewish Bible developed well to the west of Sumer. Even after Sumer itself collapsed, the Sumerian language was still used in religious schools and temples, showing the power of this early culture and its decidedly religious emphasis. What Civilization Meant The emergence of the worlds first civilization in Sumer brought to fruition the key features of this form of organization. Sumerian society certainly met the basic criterion of civilization in that it built on fairly regular economic surpluses. Sumerian farmers produced enough that they could e taxed in order to support a small but crucial number of priests and government officials. They produced enough to allow some trade and specialization, thus encouraging groups of artisans and merchants who did not farm. The Sumerian economy also stretched out along the great irrigation systems of the Tigris-Euphrates. One of the tasks of regional government was to elaborate and maintain these systems: regional coordination was thus a vital feature. The advent of civilization in Sumer also involved additional innovations building on the key features of surplus and coordination: the creation of ities beyond the scope of individual centers, such as Jericho, where at least several thousand people lived and considerable specialization developed; and the invention of writing. While these innovations were not found in all civilizations, they were vital in Sumer and other early centers such as Egypt and the Indus River. The Importance Of Cities In Middle-Eastern agricultural civilization (all civilizations were fundamentally agricultural until about 200 years ago), most people did not live in cities. The cities that existed were crucial, however, because they amassed wealth and power; allowed relatively easy exchange of ideas, ncouraging intellectual and artistic changes; and promoted further specialization in manufacture and trade. Early Middle-Eas tern cities radiated considerable influence and power into surrounding countrysides. Cities also relied on broader attributes of civilization, the most notable being relatively extensive trade and political organization. Cities could not be founded until the Middle East produced a significant agricultural surplus above what farmer families needed to live on and had groups merchants to organize trade that brought food to the city and carried urban-made goods to the countryside and other cities. Cities could not be founded until there was a sufficiently solid political organization a government, with some recognized legitimacy, and some full-time officials that could run essential urban services, such as a court system for disputes, and help regulate the relationship between cities and the countryside. Saying that early Middle-Eastern civilizations were based on cities, then, even when most people remained in the countryside as agricultural producers, is partly saying that civirizations had generated more elaborate trade and political structures than initial agricultural societies had managed. This helps explain, also, why civilizations generally covered a fairly wide area, breaking out of the localism that described the economics and political activities of the initial agricultural communities. The Importance Of Writing The second key ingredient that emerged in the Middle East after 4000 B. C. was the invention of writing. Some historians and anthropologists urge against focusing too much on the development of writing, because concentrating only on this aspect, albeit important, can leave out some civilizations, such as the civilization of the Incas in the Andes region of South America, that produced ignificant political forms without this intellectual tool. We now appreciate the sophistication societies can attain without writing, and rate the division of early human activities between hunting and gathering and agriculture as more fundamental than the invention of writing. Writing was a genuinely important development even so. Societies with writing can organize more ela borate records including the lists essential for effective taxation. Writing is a precondition for most formal bureaucracies which depend on standardized communication and the ability to maintain some documentation. Societies with writing can also organize a more elaborate intellectual life because of their ability to record data and build on past, written wisdom. For example, it is no accident that with writing many early civilizations began to generate more formal scientific knowledge. Societies before the development of writing typically depended on poetic sagas to convey their value systems, with the poetry designed to aid in memorization. With writing, the importance of sagas such as Gilgamesh might at first have continued but usually the diversity of cultural expressions soon increased ith other kinds of literature supplementing the long, rhymed epics. Some experts argue that the very fact of becoming literate changes the way people think encouraging a greater sense that the world can be understood by organized human inquiry as opposed to a belief in whimsical magical spirits. Writing, in other words, can produce more abstract religious thinking and also secular thinking that seeks to des cribe nature and human affairs in nonreligious terms. Writing, like the existence of cities, certainly helps explain how civilizations could develop more extensive trading and political systems than hose of most earlier agricultural societies. As a basis for even small bureaucracies and as a basis of record-keeping for merchant dealings beyond purely personal contacts writing played a considerable role in extending the geographical range of key civilizations and in developing new forms of economic and political organization. It is vital to recognize, however, that the advent of writing in the early history of civilizations also created new divisions within the population, for only a small minority of people mainly priests, scribes, and a few merchants had time to master writing skills. Kush And The Eastern Mediterranean Toward the end of the early civilization period, a number of partially separate civilization centers sprang up on the fringes of the civilized world in Africa and the Middle East, extending also into parts of southern Europe. These centers built heavily on the achievements of the great early centers. They resulted from the expansion efforts of these centers, as in the Egyptian push southward during the New Kingdom period and from new organizational problems within the chief centers themselves; in the Middle East, separate societies emerged during the chaotic centuries following the collapse of the Hittite empire. Kush And Axum: Civilization Spreads In Africa The kingdom of Kush sprang up along the upper (southern) reaches of the Nile. Kush was the first African state other than Egypt of which there is record. This was a state on the frontiers of Egyptian activity, where Egyptian garrisons had been stationed from time to time. By 1000 B. C. it emerged as an independent political unit, though strongly influenced by Egyptian forms. By 730 B. C. , as Egypt declined, Kush was strong enough to conquer its northern neighbor and rule it for several centuries, though this conquest was soon ended by Assyrian invasion from the Middle East. After this point the Kushites began to push their frontiers farther south, gaining a more diverse African population and weakening the Egyptian influence. It was at this point that the new capital was established at Meroe. Kushites became skilled in iron use and had access to substantial African ore and fuel. The use of iron tools extended the area that could be brought into agriculture. Kush formed a key center of metal technology in the ancient world, as a basis of both military and economic strength. Kushites developed a form of writing derived from Egyptian hieroglyphics (and which has not yet been fully deciphered). They established a number of significant cities. Their political organization, also derived from Egypt, emphasized a strong monarchy with elaborate ceremonies based on the belief that the king was a god. Kushite economic influence extended widely in sub-Saharan Africa. Extensive trade was conducted with people to the west, and this trade may have brought knowledge of iron making to much of the rest of Africa. The greatest period of the kingdom at Meroe, where activities centered from the early 6th century onward, lasted from about 250 B. C. to A. D. 50. By this time the kingdom served as a channel for African goods animal skins, bony and ivory, gold and slaves into the commerce of the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Many monuments were built during these centuries, including huge royal pyramids and an elaborate palace in Meroe. Much fine pottery and jewelry were produced. Meroe began to decline from about A. D. 100 onward and was defeated by a kingdom to the south, Axum, around A. D. 300. Prosperity and extensive political and economic activity did not end in this region, but extended into the formation of a kingdom in present-day Ethiopia. The outreach of Kush is not entirely clear beyond its trading network set p with neighboring regions. Whether African peoples outside the Upper Nile region learned much from Kush about political forms is unknown. Certainly there was little imitation of its writing, and the region of Kush and Ethiopia would long remain somewhat isolated from the wider stream of African history. Nevertheless, the formation of a separate society stretching below the eastern Sahara was an important step in setting the bases for technological and economic change throughout much of upper Africa. Though its achievements flow less fully into later African development, Kush holds for Africa what Sumer chieved for the Middle East it set a wider process of civilization in motion. The Mediterranean Region Smaller centers in the Middle East began t o spring up after about 1500 B. C. Though dependent on the larger Mesopotamian culture for many features, these centers added important new ingredients and in some cases also extended the hold of civilization westward to the Asian coast of the Mediterranean. The smaller cultures also added to the diversity of the Middle East, creating a varied array of identities that would continue to mark the region even under the impetus of later empires, such as Rome, or the sweeping religion of Islam. Several of these smaller cultures proved immensely durable and would influence other parts of the world as well. The Jews The most important of the smaller Middle Eastern groups were the Jews, who gave the world one of its most influential religions. The Jews were a Semitic people (a population group that also includes the Arabs). They were influenced by Babylonian civilization but also marked by a period of enslavement in Egypt. They settled in the southeast corner of the Mediterranean around 1600 B. C. , probably migrating from Mesopotamia. Some moved into Egypt where they were treated as a subject people. In the 13th century B. C. , Moses led these Jews to Palestine, in search of a homeland promised by the Jewish God, Yahweh. This was later held to be the central development in Jewish history. The Jews began at this point to emerge as a people with a self-conscious culture and some political identity. At most points, however, the Jewish state was small and relatively weak, retaining independence only while other parts of the Middle East were disorganized. A few Jewish kings were able to unify their people, but at many points the Jews were divided into separate regional states. Most of Palestine came under oreign (initially Assyrian) domination from 722 B. C. onward, but the Jews were able to maintain their cultural identity and key religious traditions. Monotheism The distinctive achievement of the Jews was the development of a strong monotheistic religion. Early Jewish leaders probably emphasized a particularly strong, creator god as the most powerful of many divinities a hierarchy not uncommon in animism but this encouraged a focus on the father God for prayer and loyalty. By the time of Moses, Jews were urged increasingly to abandon worship of all other gods and to receive from Yahweh the Torah (a holy Law), he keeping of which would assure divine protection and guidance. From this point onward Jews regarded themselves as a chosen people under Gods special guidance. As Jewish politics deteriorated due to increasing foreign pressure, prophets sprang up to call Jews back to faithful observance of Gods laws. By the 9th century B. C. some religious ideas and the history of the Jews began to be written down in what would become the Jewish Bible (the Old Testament of the Christian Bible). Besides the emphasis on a single God, Jewish religion had two important features. First was the idea of an overall divine plan. God guided Jewish istory, and when disasters came they constituted punishment for failures to live up to divine laws. Second was the concept of a divin ely organized morality. The Jewish God demanded not empty sacrifices or selfish prayers, but righteous behavior. God, though severe, was ultimately merciful and would help the Jews to regain morality. This system was not only monotheistic but also intensely ethical; God was actively concerned with the doings of people and so enjoined good behavior. By the 2d century B. C. , these concepts were clearly spelled out in the Torah and the other writings that were formed into the Old Testament of the Bible. By their emphasis on a written religion the Jews were able to retain their identity under foreign rule and even under outright dispersion from their Mediterranean homeland. The impact of Jewish religion beyond the Jewish people was complex. The Jews saw Gods guidance in all of human history, and not simply their own. Ultimately all peoples would be led to God. But Gods special pact was with the Jews, and there was little premium placed on missionary activity or converting others to the faith. This limitation helps explain the intensity and durability of the Jewish faith; it also kept the Jewish people a minority ithin the Middle East though at various points substantial conversions to Judaism did spread the religion somewhat more widely. Jewish monotheism, though a landmark in world religious history, is noteworthy for sustaining a distinctive Jewish culture to our own day, not for immediately altering a wider religious map. Yet the elaboration of monotheism had a wide significance. In Jewish hands the concept of God became less humanlike, more abstract a basic change not only in religion but in overall outlook. Yahweh had a power and a planning quality far different from the attributes of the traditional gods of the Middle East or Egypt. The gods, particularly in Mesopotamia, were whimsical and capricious; Yahweh was orderly and just, and individuals could know what to expect if they adhered to Gods rules. The link to ethical conduct and moral behavior was also central. Religion for the Jews was a system of life, not merely a set of rituals and ceremonies. The full impact of this religious transformation on Middle Eastern and Mediterranean civilization would come only later, when Jewish ideas were taken up by the proselytizing faiths of Christianity and Islam. But the basic concept formed one of the legacies of he twilight period from the first great civilizations to the new cultures that would soon arise in their place. The Minoans The Jews were not alone among the distinct societies popping up in the eastern Mediterranean. Around 1600 B. C. a civilized society developed on the island of Crete. This Minoan society traded widely with both Mesopotamia and Egypt, and probably acquired many of its civilized characteristics from this exchange. Minoan society, for example, copied Egyptian architectural forms and mathematics, though it developed important new artistic styles in the colossal palace built in the capital city, Knossos. The alphabet, too, was adapted from Egypt. Political structures similar to those of Egypt or the Mesopotamian empires emphasized elaborate bureaucratic con- trols, complete with massive record keeping, under a powerful monarch. Minoan navies at various points conquered parts of the mainland of Greece, eventually leading to the establishment of the first civilization there. Centered particularly in the kingdom of Mycenae, this early Greek civilization developed considerable capacity for monumental building, and also conducted important wars with city-states in the Middle East, including the famous conflict with Troy. Civilizations in Crete and in Greece were overturned by a wave of Indo-European invasions, culminating around 1000 B. C. , that temporarily reduced the capacities of these societies to maintain elaborate art or writing, or extensive political or economic organizations. While the civilization that would arise later, to form classical Greece, had somewhat separate origins, it would build extensively on the memories of this first civilized society and on its roots in Egyptian and Mesopotamian achievements. The Phoenicians Another distinct society grew up in the Middle East itself, in what is ow the nation of Lebanon. Around 2000 B. C. a people called the Phoenicians settled on the Mediterranean coast. Like the Minoans, they quickly turned to seafaring because their agricultural hinterland was not extensive. The Phoenicians used their elaborate trading contacts to gain knowledge from the major civilization centers, and then in several key cases improved upon what they learned. Around 130 0 B. C. they devised a much simplified alphabet based on the Mesopotamian cuneiform. The Phoenician alphabet had only 22 letters, and so was learned relatively easily. It served as ancestor to the Greek and Latin lettering systems. The Phoenicians also upgraded the Egyptian numbering system. The Phoenicians were, however, a merchant people, not vested in extensive cultural achievements. They advanced manufacturing techniques in several areas, particularly the production of dyes for cloth. Above all, for commercial purposes, they dispersed and set up colonies at a number of points along the Mediterranean. They benefited from the growing weakness of Egypt and the earlier collapse of Minoan society and its Greek successor, for there were few competitors for influence in the Mediterranean by 1000 B. C. Phoenician ailors moved steadily westward, setting up a major trading city on the coast of North Africa at Carthage, and lesser centers in Italy, Spain, and southern France. The Phoenicians even traded along the Atlantic coast of Europe, reaching Britain where they sought a supply of tin. Ultimately Phoenicia collapsed in the wake of the Assyrian invasions of the Middle East, though several o f the colonial cities long survived. The End Of The Early Civilization Period The proliferation of spin-off civilizations brought important innovations within the framework set by the achievements of the great progenitors in Mesopotamia and Egypt. The simplified alphabet, the major cultural shift described by the first great monotheistic system, and a number of quite practical improvements the introduction by another Mediterranean coastal peoples, the Lydians, of coined money considerably advanced the level of civilization itself. The spread of civilization into Kush and into some European portions of the Mediterranean, fed by deliberate expansion and growing trade, also set the basis for the development of major civilization cent